CHAPTER-4
FINAL EFFORTS FOR THE
CREATION OF PAKISTAN
Final Efforts for the Creation of Pakistan
Following the foundational efforts for Pakistan’s creation, a series of pivotal events unfolded, shaping the destiny of the nation. These transformative occurrences, marked by political negotiations and the convergence of fervent aspirations, collectively culminated in the decisive moments leading to the formation of Pakistan in 1947.All of them are briefly given in the following:
In 1930, during the 21st annual session of the All-India Muslim League, the renowned scholar Sir Dr Allama Muhammad Iqbal delivered a momentous speech known as the Allahabad Address. This address holds a significant place in Pakistani history and laid the groundwork for what would later be called the Two-Nation Theory.
In his address, Allama Iqbal outlined a vision for independent states in the Muslim-majority provinces of northwestern India. He became the first politician to articulate the idea that Muslims constitute a distinct nation deserving political independence from other regions and communities in India. Here are some key points from his address:
Iqbal proposed the creation of a separate Muslim state in north-western India, which later laid the ideological foundation for the formation of Pakistan.
He specifically mentioned the regions of Punjab, North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), Sindh, and Baluchistan as the areas that could form this Muslim state.
Iqbal emphasized the distinct cultural and religious identity of Muslims in India, arguing that Muslims were a separate nation by virtue of their unique religious and cultural heritage.
Iqbal argued against the idea of a single Indian nation, asserting that India was a continent of diverse nations and that Muslims constituted one such nation deserving of political autonomy.
He called for political empowerment and representation for Muslims to ensure their interests and rights were safeguarded in the political landscape of India.
Iqbal addressed economic issues, highlighting the economic disparities and exploitation faced by Muslims. He believed that an independent Muslim state could better address these economic injustices.
He stressed the importance of Muslims having the autonomy to preserve and develop their religious and cultural practices without interference.
Iqbal advocated for self-governance for Muslims, suggesting that only through self-rule could Muslims achieve true socio-political and economic progress.
The address significantly influenced future leaders, particularly Muhammad Ali Jinnah, and played a crucial role in the eventual demand for Pakistan.
The Allahabad Address is seen as a landmark moment that set the stage for the Pakistan Movement. It remains a key document in understanding the ideological underpinnings of Pakistan’s creation.
These points encapsulate Iqbal’s vision for a separate Muslim state and highlight the address’s importance in the history of the Indian subcontinent.
The Round Table Conferences held between 1930 and 1932 were a series of high-level meetings where the British Government engaged with prominent Indian political personalities to discuss constitutional reforms in India. These conferences aimed to shape India’s future constitution, emphasizing parliamentarianism and dominion status as constitutional goals. However, despite their efforts, the resulting Government of India Act, 1935 established provincial autonomy and a federal system that was never fully implemented. These conferences were significant in shaping the future constitutional framework for India. They are briefly described in the following.
The First Round Table Conference (1930-31) was a pivotal event in the history of British India’s constitutional development. Here are key points about the conference:
The conference took place in London from November 12, 1930, to January 19, 1931.
The primary aim was to discuss constitutional reforms in India, especially in light of the Simon Commission Report, and explore the possibility of granting India dominion status.
The INC, which was the largest and most influential political party in India at the time, boycotted the conference. This significantly impacted the conference’s ability to reach comprehensive decisions, as the INC leaders were imprisoned due to the civil disobedience movement.
Chaired by British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, the conference included key British figures such as Lord Sankey, the Secretary of State for India.
Despite the absence of the INC, the conference saw participation from various other Indian groups, including representatives from the Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, and leaders from the princely states. Notable participants included Aga Khan III, Sir Muhammad Shafi, B.R. Ambedkar, and Tej Bahadur Sapru.
There was a general agreement on the need for a federal structure in India, integrating both British India and the princely states into a single federation.
The idea of granting more autonomy to provinces within British India was widely supported, aiming to give provinces greater control over their own affairs.
The conference devoted significant attention to the rights and representation of minorities. Various minority groups, including Muslims, Sikhs, and Dalits, demanded separate electorates and safeguards to ensure their political representation and protection.
Discussions also touched upon the necessity for economic and social reforms to address the disparities and injustices prevalent in Indian society.
Due to the absence of the INC and differing opinions among participants, the conference did not reach any definitive decisions. However, it set the stage for future negotiations and highlighted the need for broader representation in discussions on India’s constitutional future.
In summary, the First Round Table Conference was a crucial, though inconclusive, step in the process of constitutional reform in British India. It brought various Indian leaders and British officials together to discuss the future governance of India, setting the stage for further negotiations and eventual reforms.
The Second Round Table Conference took place in London from September 7, 1931, to December 24, 1931, as part of the British government’s efforts to address constitutional reforms in India. It was a follow-up to the First Round Table Conference held in 1930. The conference aimed to discuss and reach a consensus on constitutional reforms in British India, considering the various perspectives of different communities and political groups. Here are key points about the Second Round Table Conference:
Unlike the First Round Table Conference, the Second Conference saw the participation of the INC, represented by Mahatma Gandhi, who attended as the sole representative of the party following the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
The conference included a diverse array of Indian delegates: leaders from various political parties, representatives of the princely states, and spokespersons for different religious and social communities, including Muslims, Sikhs, and Dalits.
Prominent Indian figures included Mahatma Gandhi, B.R. Ambedkar, Aga Khan III, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, and Sarojini Naidu.
British representatives included Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald and other key officials like Secretary of State for India, Samuel Hoare.
The primary issues discussed were the federal structure of India, the future constitution, provincial autonomy, and the representation of various communities in the legislative bodies.
There was a consensus on the need for a federal structure, but disagreements persisted on the extent of autonomy for provinces and the inclusion of princely states in the federation.
The issue of separate electorates for minorities was a major point of contention. Gandhi opposed separate electorates for untouchables, while B.R. Ambedkar advocated for them to ensure fair representation.
Gandhi argued for the immediate establishment of a responsible government at the center and the end of the British monopoly on salt production. He also focused on securing safeguards for India’s economic and political interests.
The British government proposed the Communal Award to ensure separate electorates for different religious and social communities, which was met with resistance from Gandhi but supported by leaders like Ambedkar.
Discussions also included the need for social reforms, addressing economic inequalities, and improving the conditions of marginalized communities.
The conference ended without a definitive agreement due to the persistent disagreements, particularly on the issue of minority representation and the structure of the proposed federal government. However, it set the stage for continued dialogue and subsequent conferences.
In summary, the Second Round Table Conference was a significant event in the constitutional development of British India. It brought together a diverse group of Indian leaders to discuss critical issues, highlighted the complexities of creating a unified approach to governance, and set the stage for future reforms and negotiations.
The Third Round Table Conference took place in London from November 17, 1932, to December 24, 1932, as part of the British government’s efforts to address constitutional reforms in India. The conference was held against the backdrop of the failure of the earlier two Round Table Conferences (1930 and 1931) to achieve a consensus among the Indian political leaders. It was the last of the series organized by the British government to discuss constitutional reforms in India. Here are key points about the Third Round Table Conference:
The Third Round Table Conference saw significantly reduced participation from Indian leaders. Notably, the Indian National Congress (INC) and key figures like Mahatma Gandhi did not attend, largely due to dissatisfaction with the progress of the previous conferences and ongoing imprisonment of INC leaders.
British officials, including Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald and Secretary of State for India Samuel Hoare, played prominent roles in the discussions.
Despite the absence of the INC, the conference included representatives from various other Indian political parties, minority groups, and princely states. Notable participants included B.R. Ambedkar and representatives of the Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha.
The conference focused on the detailed aspects of the proposed constitutional framework, building on discussions from the previous two conferences. This included the specifics of federal structure, provincial autonomy, and minority safeguards.
Discussions continued on the establishment of a federal structure that would include both British Indian provinces and princely states. The specifics of the distribution of powers between the center and the provinces were key points of discussion.
There was a consensus on granting greater autonomy to provinces, allowing them more control over their internal affairs, but the extent and nature of this autonomy were debated.
Ensuring adequate representation and protection for minorities remained a significant issue. The conference discussed separate electorates and other mechanisms to safeguard minority interests.
The British government’s Communal Award, which proposed separate electorates for different religious and social communities, was a contentious point. This award had been previously rejected by Gandhi and the INC but was supported by other minority leaders.
The conference also touched upon economic and social reforms, aiming to address issues of poverty, education, and social inequality in India.
The Third Round Table Conference did not reach any major agreements due to the lack of broad representation and persistent disagreements. However, the discussions contributed to the drafting of the “White Paper” on Indian constitutional reforms, which laid the groundwork for the Government of India Act 1935.
In summary, the Third Round Table Conference was a critical yet inconclusive event in the series of discussions on India’s constitutional future. It highlighted the complexities of addressing diverse political and social interests and set the stage for the eventual Government of India Act 1935, despite its limitations in fully satisfying Indian aspirations for self-governance.
The Government of India Act of 1935, a significant legislative enactment by the British Parliament, aimed to address the evolving political dynamics in British India. Enacted against the backdrop of mounting demands for increased Indian participation in governance, the Act sought to reform the constitutional framework.
The Government of India Act of 1935 was a pivotal piece of legislation passed by the British Parliament, marking a significant step in India’s constitutional development. Here are key points about the Act:
The Act proposed a federal structure for India, which included British India and the princely states. However, the federal aspect was never fully implemented because the princely states did not join the federation.
One of the Act’s most significant features was the introduction of provincial autonomy. Provinces were granted autonomy and could form their own governments, responsible for a range of local matters. The Act ended the system of dyarchy introduced by the Government of India Act of 1919.
The Act established bicameral legislatures in six provinces: Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Bihar, Assam, and the United Provinces. Each had an upper house (Legislative Council) and a lower house (Legislative Assembly).
Powers were divided between the center and the provinces. There were three lists: Federal (for the central government), Provincial (for provincial governments), and Concurrent (for both). In case of conflict, the central government had the ultimate authority.
A system of dyarchy was introduced at the central government level. This meant that some areas of administration (like defense and foreign affairs) were reserved for the Governor-General, while others (like education and health) were transferred to Indian ministers.
The Act established a Federal Court in India to resolve disputes between provinces and the central government and interpret the constitution.
The franchise was extended, and about 10% of the Indian population gained the right to vote. This was still limited, but it was a significant increase compared to previous arrangements.
The Act included various safeguards to protect British interests. The Governor-General retained significant powers, including the authority to veto legislation, suspend governments, and control the budget.
The Act continued separate electorates for different communities, including Muslims, Sikhs, Anglo-Indians, Europeans, and Depressed Classes (Scheduled Castes), a system that had been controversial and opposed by many Indian leaders.
The Act was met with mixed reactions in India. The Indian National Congress (INC) opposed the Act because it fell short of granting full self-governance and maintained significant British control. However, they participated in the elections under the Act and formed governments in several provinces. The Act laid the groundwork for future constitutional developments and was in effect until the adoption of the Indian Constitution in 1950.
In summary, the Government of India Act of 1935 was a significant legislative measure that introduced important constitutional reforms, laid the groundwork for India’s future governance, and marked a crucial step in the country’s journey towards independence.
The period between 1937 and 1939, when the Indian National Congress (INC) formed ministries in several provinces under the Government of India Act, 1935, is often referred to by some historians and Muslim leaders as the “Dark Period for Muslims.” Here are 10 key points explaining why this period was considered problematic for Muslims:
After the provincial elections of 1937, the INC formed ministries in eight out of eleven provinces. This marked the first time the Congress had substantial control over provincial governments.
The Congress ministries were accused of majoritarianism, where the interests and rights of the Muslim minority were allegedly overlooked in favor of the Hindu majority.
In several provinces, Urdu, the language widely used by Muslims, faced discrimination. Policies favoring Hindi in administrative and educational contexts were perceived as attempts to undermine Muslim culture and identity.
The Congress ministries introduced educational reforms perceived as promoting Hindu culture and sidelining Islamic education. There were complaints that textbooks and curricula were biased towards Hindu traditions and neglected Muslim contributions.
Muslims alleged that Congress policies were biased against their religious practices. There were reports of restrictions on the construction of new mosques and interference in religious activities, such as the organization of Muslim festivals and prayers.
Muslims claimed discrimination in public services and employment under Congress rule. They alleged that Muslims were disproportionately excluded from government jobs and promotions.
Economic policies implemented by the Congress ministries were seen as disadvantageous to Muslims, particularly in regions where Muslims were economically weaker. Issues like land reforms and support for certain industries were viewed as favoring Hindu interests.
There were allegations of interference with waqf (endowment) properties, which are religious properties held in trust for Muslim charitable and religious purposes. Muslims felt that these properties were being mismanaged or appropriated under Congress rule.
Muslims felt underrepresented in the political processes despite the separate electorates system. The Congress’s dominant position in provincial governments meant that Muslim League and other Muslim political voices were marginalized.
The Muslim League, under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, used these grievances to rally Muslim support and highlight the need for separate Muslim political identity and protection of their rights. This period significantly contributed to the growing demand for a separate Muslim state, eventually leading to the Lahore Resolution of 1940 and the call for Pakistan.
In summary, the period of Congress Ministries from 1937 to 1939 is considered by many Muslims as a time of significant grievance, fostering feelings of alienation and discrimination. These experiences played a crucial role in the eventual demand for the creation of Pakistan, fundamentally shaping the political landscape of the Indian subcontinent.
The Pakistan Resolution 1940, also known as the Lahore Resolution, was a landmark moment in the political history of British India, serving as the foundation for the creation of the independent state of Pakistan. This resolution was adopted on March 23, 1940, during the All-India Muslim League’s annual session held in Lahore. Here are 10 key points about the Pakistan Resolution of 1940:
The Pakistan Resolution was passed on March 23, 1940, at the annual session of the All-India Muslim League held in Minto Park, Lahore.
The resolution was presented by A.K. Fazlul Huq, the Premier of Bengal, on behalf of the Working Committee of the All-India Muslim League.
The session was presided over by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the leader of the All-India Muslim League, who played a crucial role in articulating and advocating for the resolution.
The resolution called for “independent states” in the north-western and eastern zones of India where Muslims were in the majority. This was a significant departure from the previous demand for greater autonomy within a united India.
The resolution rejected the concept of a united India, arguing that Muslims and Hindus were distinct nations with their own customs, religion, and traditions, and hence could not coexist within a single state framework.
The resolution was based on the Two-Nation Theory, which posited that Muslims and Hindus were two separate nations by every definition, and therefore Muslims should have their own state to ensure their cultural, political, and religious rights.
The resolution did not specify the exact boundaries of the proposed states. This vagueness left room for interpretation and negotiation in the subsequent years.
The Indian National Congress and other Hindu leaders rejected the resolution outright, viewing it as a divisive move that threatened the unity of India.
The resolution garnered widespread support from Muslims across India, consolidating the Muslim League’s position as the primary representative of Indian Muslims and bolstering its demand for a separate state.
The Pakistan Resolution is considered a crucial turning point in the Indian independence movement. It laid the foundation for the creation of Pakistan in 1947, following the end of British colonial rule in India.
In summary, the Pakistan Resolution of 1940 was a landmark event that fundamentally altered the course of South Asian history. It was instrumental in the eventual creation of Pakistan, reflecting the aspirations of Indian Muslims for a separate homeland and significantly shaping the political dynamics of the Indian subcontinent.
The period from 1940 to 1946 was marked by significant events that played a crucial role in shaping the course of the partition of the Indian subcontinent. Here are some major events during this period:
The All-India Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, passed the Lahore Resolution, calling for separate states for Muslims in the north-western and eastern zones of India.
Britain declared India a participant in World War II without consulting Indian leaders, leading to widespread discontent and political tensions.
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India to negotiate an agreement with Indian leaders, offering dominion status after the war. The mission failed as both the Congress and the Muslim League rejected the proposals.
The Indian National Congress launched the Quit India Movement, demanding an end to British rule. The British responded with mass arrests, including that of Mahatma Gandhi and other prominent leaders, leading to widespread unrest.
The failure of the Cripps Mission led to increased demands for complete independence from British rule.
The Bengal Famine of 1943 resulted in the deaths of an estimated 2-3 million people due to starvation, malnutrition, and disease, exacerbating the discontent with British rule.
Mahatma Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah held talks to resolve the deadlock between the Congress and the Muslim League, but they failed to reach an agreement on the future constitutional framework of India.
A conference convened by the Viceroy, Lord Wavell, to discuss Indian self-government. It ended in failure due to disagreements between the Congress and the Muslim League, particularly over the issue of Muslim representation.
The end of World War II shifted British priorities and led to increased pressure for decolonization.
The British announced elections to form a Constituent Assembly to draft a new constitution for India. These elections were held in 1946.
The British government sent a mission (Cabinet Mission) to India to discuss the transfer of power. The plan proposed a united India with a federal structure but was ultimately rejected by both the Congress and the Muslim League.
Called by the Muslim League to demand a separate Pakistan, Direct Action Day led to widespread communal violence, particularly in Calcutta, resulting in thousands of deaths and escalating tensions between Hindus and Muslims.
An interim government was formed with Jawaharlal Nehru as the Vice President of the Executive Council. The Muslim League initially refused to join but later participated.
The Royal Indian Navy mutiny by Indian sailors in Bombay and other places highlighted the growing discontent within the armed forces and the general populace against British rule.
In summary, the period from 1940 to 1946 was marked by significant political developments, mass movements for independence, and rising communal tensions, culminating in the decisive moment of India’s partition and independence.
The Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946 was a pivotal moment in the final stages of British India’s journey towards independence. Here are 10 key points about the Cabinet Mission Plan:
The British government sent the Cabinet Mission to India in March 1946 to discuss and plan for the transfer of power from British rule to Indian leadership, aiming to maintain a united India and avoid partition.
The mission consisted of three senior British politicians: Lord Pethick-Lawrence (Secretary of State for India), Sir Stafford Cripps (President of the Board of Trade), and A.V. Alexander (First Lord of the Admiralty).
The mission’s main objectives were to agree on the method of transferring power to Indian leadership, ensure a peaceful transition, and address the conflicting demands of the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League.
The plan proposed a three-tier federal structure with a central government handling foreign affairs, defense, and communications, and groups of provinces forming regional unions dealing with other subjects.
Provinces were grouped into three sections:
Section A: Hindu-majority provinces (Madras, Bombay, United Provinces, Bihar, Central Provinces, and Orissa)
Section B: Muslim-majority provinces in the northwest (Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sindh, and Baluchistan)
Section C: Muslim-majority provinces in the east (Bengal and Assam)
A Constituent Assembly was to be elected to draft a new constitution for India. The assembly would consist of representatives elected by provincial legislatures, ensuring representation from all sections.
An interim government would be formed to govern until the new constitution was implemented. This government would include representatives from major political parties, including the Congress and the Muslim League.
The plan rejected the idea of partitioning India into two separate states (India and Pakistan) as demanded by the Muslim League. Instead, it sought to keep India united while providing significant autonomy to Muslim-majority regions.
The Indian National Congress accepted the plan in principle but opposed the idea of grouping provinces, fearing it could lead to the division of India.
The Muslim League initially accepted the plan but later withdrew its support, especially after the Congress’s refusal to commit to the compulsory grouping of provinces.
The failure to agree on the grouping of provinces and the distribution of powers led to the breakdown of the Cabinet Mission Plan. The increasing communal tensions and political deadlock contributed to the eventual decision to partition India.
We can conclude that the creation of Pakistan was the culmination of a long process of political awakening, identity formation, and strategic maneuvering by the Muslim leadership in response to the socio-political realities of the time. The initial efforts, characterized by both visionary foresight and pragmatic political action, laid the groundwork for the birth of Pakistan in 1947, reshaping the political landscape of South Asia.
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